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In languages with differing scripts, borrowing entails an additional need for transcription, as in the borrowings of mathematical, scientific and other terms from Arabic into Latin and, later, other languages e. For example, the French calque science-fiction for the English. Vinay and Darbelnet note that both borrowings and calques often become fully integrated into the TL, although sometimes with some semantic change, which can turn them into false friends.

An example is the German Handy for a mobile cell phone. Their example is: English ST: I left my spectacles on the table downstairs. In those cases where literal translation is not possible, Vinay and Darbelnet say that the strategy of oblique translation must be used.

They list at least ten different categories, such as: verb A noun: they have pioneered A they have been the first; adverb A verb: He will soon be back A He will hurry to be back. It can be: Q obligatory: e. Modulation at the level of message is subdivided ibid. Modulation therefore covers a wide range of phenomena. There is also often a process of originally free modulations becoming fixed expressions.

For example, Vinay and Darbelnet suggest that the cultural connotation of a reference to the game of cricket in an English text might be best translated into French by a reference to the Tour de France. Make a list of phenomena that are easy and difficult to catego- rize using their model. Among those that have maintained currency in translation theory are the following: Q Amplification: The TL uses more words, often because of syntactic expan- sion, e.

The opposite of amplification is economy. Q False friend: A structurally similar term in SL and TL which deceives the user into thinking the meaning is the same, e. French librarie means not English library but bookstore. Translation does inevitably involve some loss, since it is impossible to preserve all the ST nuances of meaning and structure in the TL.

This may occur on the level of grammar e. English ST the doctor explicated as masculine or feminine in a TL where indication of gender is essential , seman- tics e. These three levels reflect the main structural elements of the book.

Two further terms are introduced which look above word level. These are cohesive links also, and, but, and parallel structures , discourse markers however, first. Such levels of analysis begin to point to the text-based and discourse-based analysis considered in Chapters 5 and 6 of this book, so we shall not consider them further here. However, one further important parameter described by Vinay and Darbelnet does need to be stressed.

This is the difference between servitude and option: Q Servitude refers to obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a differ- ence between the two language systems. Similarly, adverbial structures in German and Japanese have a fixed order of time—manner—place, e. This could be the decision to amplify or explicate a general term e. Clearly, this is a crucial difference. These are as follows: 1 Identify the units of translation. The first four steps are also followed by Vinay and Darbelnet in their analysis of published translations.

As far as the key question of the unit of translation is concerned, the authors reject the individual word. In the original French version —7 , an example is given of the division of a short ST and TT into the units of translation. The divisions proposed include examples of individual words e. To facilitate analysis where oblique translation is used, Vinay and Darbelnet suggest numbering the translation units in both the ST and TT for an example, see Table 4.

The units which have the same number in each text can then be compared to see which translation procedure has been adopted. Summarize the main differences between the two models. Although Vinay and Darbelnet do not use the term, that is in effect what they are describing. Catford 20 follows the Firthian and Hallidayan linguistic model, which analyses language as communication, operating functionally in context and on a range of different levels e.

Thus, formal correspondence is a more general system-based concept between a pair of languages e. When the two concepts diverge as in efectos personales and bolso , a translation shift is deemed to have occurred. Catford considers two kinds of shift: 1 shift of level and 2 shift of category. This could, for example, be: Q aspect in Russian being translated by a lexical verb in English: e.

These are subdivided into four kinds: a Structural shifts: These are said by Catford to be the most common and to involve mostly a shift in grammatical structure. Examples given between French and English are number and article systems — although similar systems operate in the two languages, they do not always correspond. However, his analysis of intra-system shifts betrays some of the weaknesses of his approach. He does, however, ibid. He does not look at whole texts, nor even above the level of the sentence.

The question of stylistic shifts in translation has received greater attention in more recent translation theory. The first point is typified by two papers, by Giuliana Schiavi and Theo Hermans, that appeared together in Target in the mid- s. Schiavi 14 borrows a schema from narratology to discuss an inherent paradox of translation: [A] reader of translation will receive a sort of split message coming from two different addressers, both original although in two different senses: one origi- nating from the author which is elaborated and mediated by the translator, and one the language of the translation itself originating directly from the translator.

The mix of authorial and translatorial message is the result of conscious and unconscious decision-making from the translator. For the analyst, the question is how far the style and intentions of the trans- lator, rather than the ST author, are recoverable from analysis of the TT choices.

It has also been advanced by the use of corpus-based methods. So, for example, Baker compares the frequency of the lemma forms of the verb SAY in literary translations from Spanish and Portuguese by Peter Bush and Arabic by Peter Clark , and uses the British National Corpus of texts6 as a reference to judge their relative importance. But this could simply be because of the influence of the SL; the Arabic qaal is generally more frequent in the language than is English SAY because the repetition of the same reporting verb in English is frowned upon.

Despite these problems, there are some important features that can be investigated by such studies. Most important, perhaps, is the analysis of the relative markedness of stylistic choices in TT and ST.

So, in English a sequence such as Challenging it is. The key is to look for the reason behind the markedness. In translation, it may usually be expected that a marked item in the ST would be translated by a similarly marked item in the TT but this is not always so.

On the other hand, Saldanha investigates features such as italicized borrowings that make a particular translation distinctive. Some of my own work e. Or one that is promoted by the society in which they live? Such questions will be taken up more fully in Chapters 6 discourse analysis , 7 descriptive studies , 8 translation and ideology and 9 translator and ethics. What does this tell us about the different phenomena they are investigating?

It is a means of describing what constitutes the transla- tion product but there are limits to what it can or even attempts to tell us about the actual cognitive process of translation. The linguistic component needs to be understood by reference not only to explicit but also to implicit meaning in an attempt to recover the authorial intention. This was an explanation devel- oped to explain the cognitive processing of the interpreter, where transfer supposedly occurs through sense and not words.

However, rather than placing the emphasis on a structural representation of semantics, the interpretive model stresses the deverbalized cognitive processing that takes place. Yet deverbal- ization, a key plank in the interpretive model, is really underdeveloped theoreti- cally partly because of the problems of observing the process.

If deverbalization occurs in a non-verbal state in the mind, how is the researcher going to gain access to it, apart from in the reconstituted form of the verbalized output after the re-expression stage? Here, there are many inferences at work: Q from the MP, whose humming makes and invites a particular inferencing, suggesting a link between the practices of the government Minister and the Italian mafia; Q from the audience, who need to interpret the relationship between the film and the Minister, who is of Italian descent; Q the need to apologize arises from the inference, made by others and apparently accepted by the MP, that his actions amount to a slur.

Translators, for their part, are faced with a similar situation and have several responsibilities ibid. They need to decide i whether and how it is possible to communicate the informative intention, ii whether to translate descriptively or interpretively, iii what the degree of resemblance to the ST should be, and so on. In the above example, a translator would need to decide how much information to add to ensure that sufficient communicative clues were present to allow a TT audience to retrieve the ST intention.

By focusing on the communicative process and cognitive processing, Gutt rejects those translation models, such as Register analysis see Chapter 6 and descriptive studies see Chapter 7 , that are based on a study of input—output.

He even contends that translation as communication can be explained using relevance theoretic concepts alone. We shall discuss this further in Chapter 6. One method, particu- larly popular in the s, is think-aloud protocols TAPs. This is usually recorded by the researcher and later transcribed and analysed.

Think-aloud is an experimental method innovated by psychology notably Ericsson and Simon and may provide more detailed information on the translation process than simply comparing the ST—TT pair.

Well-known early TAP studies of translation e. Despite the advantages of TAPs, there are some well-known and debated limitations. Gambier and L. Q The effort involved in verbalizing slows down the translation process and may affect the way the translator segments the text Jakobsen Q The data gathered is therefore incomplete and does not give access to processes which the translator does automatically.

Q What tools should the subjects be allowed to use dictionaries, notes, internet. That is, they support or supplement think-aloud with other experimental methods.

The length of such fixation points, and the dilation of the pupil, may indicate the mental effort being made by the translator. We use it as the basis for this case study, applying it to a short illustrative text. This text is a brief extract about the area of Greenwich in London, taken from a tourist brochure for boat tours on the River Thames.

Boxes 4. Invaders from the continent passed either by ship or the Old Dover Road, built by the Romans, on their way to the capital. In , the Danes moored their longships at Greenwich and raided Canterbury, returning with Archbishop Alfege as hostage and later murdering him on the spot where the church named after him now stands.

In , the Danes moored their drakkars at Greenwich before raiding Canterbury and returning with archbishop Alphege, taken in hostage then murdered there where is found henceforth the church bearing his name. Following the model outlined in section 4. Table 4. Often there are simultaneous lexical correspondences of both small and longer segments. For instance, ST translation unit 13 built by the Romans could be considered as three separate, clearly understandable segments: built, by and the Romans.

Similarly, ST units 23 with Archbishop Alfege and 24 as hostage could be considered as a single unit of thought. This type of segmentation problem recurs constantly. Categorization of the translation procedures used for each of the ST units is shown in Box 4.

There is thus word order shift. In addition, the change from ST repetition of Greenwich to the TT connector cette ancienne ville is an example of economy and of transposition proper noun A demonstrative pronoun. This is also amplification. Borrowing of Old Dover Road, although with addition of article la. There is also modulation of the message here through a change of point of view.

This could also be classed as fixed modulation whole A part in that the origin of drakkar is the dragon sculpture on the prow of the longboats. In addition, ST unit 28 shows cause A effect modulation named after him A portant son nom and transposition prepositional phrase A noun phrase. Are there points where you disagree with the analysis? What does this tell us about the use of this kind of model?

Discussion of case study Analysis of this box shows around thirteen direct translations out of twenty-nine translation units. In other words, around 40 per cent of the translations might be termed direct. Most of the oblique translation proce- dures revealed affect the lexical or syntactic level, although there is some shift in prosody and structure.

The figures can only be approximate because there is a crucial problem of determining the translation unit and the boundaries between the categories are vague. Some units e. There is little incorporation of higher-level discourse considerations nor a means of discussing the effect the changes might have on the reader. However, like Catford, who in the s applied a systematic contrastive linguistic approach to translation, theirs is a rather static model. Fuzziness of category boundaries is a problem, while other models have been proposed for non-European languages e.

Loh Another approach to the analysis of shifts, particu- larly stylistic shifts, came from Czechoslovakia in the s and s. Meanwhile, a different approach to the examination and explanation of trans- lation procedures has been afforded by cognitive theorists, starting with the Paris School of the s and including Gutt from relevance theory and Bell from psycholinguistics and systemic functional analysis.

Increasingly, such research methods have made use of technological advances such as think-aloud proto- cols, key-stroke logging and eye-tracking, although methodological procedures remain to be standardized.

Further reading See Fawcett , Hermans and Pym for further discussion of models described here. See Koster for the linguistic analysis of poetry in translation. For voice in retranslation, see Alvstad and Assis Rosa See also the discussion of Gutt in Hatim and Munday , Unit 8.

Discussion and research points 1 Boxes 4. How does your analysis of other TTs differ from that of the French translation? Box 4. Gli invasori provenienti dal continente passavano sulle navi o lungo la Old Dover Road, costruita dai Romani, mentre si dirigevano verso la capitale.

How might this type of analysis be incorporated into a model of transla- tion shifts? List its strengths and possible applications. How far do you think that Gutt demonstrates that relevance theory is sufficient to explain translation processes? Q Reiss stresses equivalence at text level, linking language functions to text types and translation strategy.

Q Recent developments in multimodality and digital text genres. Manchester: St Jerome. The s and s saw a move away from linguistic typologies of translation shifts, and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative approach to the analysis of translation.

This tied in with advances in linguistic studies of the complex parameters of text comprehension and gener- ation. Her functional approach aimed initially at systematizing the assessment of translations. These links can be seen in Table 5. The form of language is dialogic and the focus is appellative.

Text types are therefore categorized according to their main function. These are presented visually in Figure 5. Following this diagram, a reference work e. Between these poles are positioned a host of hybrid types. Thus, a biography e. Similarly, a personal webpage gives facts about the individual but also often presents a flattering portrait.

It too may have an expressive function as a piece of rhetoric. These methods occupy the last two rows of Table 5. So, the translation of an encyclopedia entry of, say, the Tyrannosaurus Rex, should focus on transmit- ting the factual content and terminology and not worry about stylistic niceties.

So, the translator of James Joyce would need to try to write from the perspective of the author. In literature, the style of the ST author is a priority. So, the TT of an advert needs to appeal to the target audience even if new words and images are needed. For example, the translation of any content-focused text, such as our encyclopedia entry of the Tyrannosaurus Rex, should first aim at preserving semantic equivalence.

Similarly, Reiss ibid. These adequacy criteria are valid as a measure of quality in those translation situations where the TT is to have the same function as the ST. Originally written as a satirical novel to attack the British government of the day i. Alternatively, a TT may have a different communicative function from the ST: an operative election speech in one language may be translated for analysts in another country interested in finding out what policies have been presented and how i.

However, over the years there have been a number of criticisms of the text type model see Fawcett —8. One of the criticisms is why there should only be three types of language function. Although she works in the same functionalist tradition as Reiss, Nord 44, see also section 5.

Business and financial texts in English contain a large number of simple and complex metaphors: markets are bullish and bearish, profits soar, peak, flatten, dive and plummet, while the credit crunch bites, hostile takeover bids are launched and fiscal haircuts imposed.

How would you translate them into your other language s? If possible, find out how they have been translated in target texts, for example for the United Nations, World Bank or European institutions.

Some of these have a fixed translation in another language, but the more complex and individualistic metaphors do not, and more recent work has also moved from the consideration of linguistic metaphor to conceptual metaphors see Lakoff and Johnson that represent and structure perceptions of reality. One example given by Dickins is the frequency of Arabic metaphors about information which feature verbs of motion e. There has reached to our programme.

Our programme has received a question. For example, we might accept a plain-prose method for translating the English financial metaphors above into a language where such a metaphorical style was out of place — so, profits soar may be rendered as profits increase considerably.

But what would we do when translating a financial text from that language into English? A translation of such a text into English or other similar languages surely requires not just attention to the informative value of the ST. It also requires the use of the lexical and conceptual metaphors that are common to that genre in English. Failure to do so would produce an English TT that was lacking in the expressive function of language. An annual business report, classed by Reiss as a strongly informative text, may also show a strongly expressive side.

In Figure 5. Finally, the translation method employed depends on far more than just text type. This is a key question in the rest of this chapter and also in Chapter 6.

Depending on the text type under consideration, she incorporates cultural history, literary studies, sociocultural and area studies and, for legal, economic, medical and scientific translation, the study of the relevant specialized subject. Her view of the field is illustrated by Figure 5.

Snell-Hornby 31 explains that, horizontally, the diagram is to be read as a series of clines, from left to right, with no clear demarcations. These include sociocultural knowledge for general language translation and special subject studies for specialized translation. Level D then covers the translation process, including i understanding the function of the ST, ii the TT focus and iii the communicative function of the TT. Level E covers areas of linguistics relevant to translation.

Level F, the lowest-order level, deals with phonological aspects, such as alliteration, rhythm and speakability of stage translation and film dubbing. This is a very ambitious attempt to bring together diverse areas of translation and to bridge the gap between the commercial and artistic translations described by Schleiermacher in see Chapter 2. Yet one must question whether an attempt to incorporate all genres and text types into such a detailed single over- arching analytical framework is really viable.

Inconsistencies are inevitably to be found. Here are some examples. Some may be quite specialized technical, scientific, financial, sporting, etc. Our discussion of the characteristics of audiovisual translation in Chapter 11 shows that it operates under very different constraints.

Translations of foreign news interviews may be designed to be read as a voice-over, while translations of written speeches may also need to retain, recreate or compensate for the rhythm or sound of the ST.

There is no necessity for translation studies to focus solely on the literary or religious, as was so often the case in its early days. Nor, by contrast, should the focus be restricted solely to the technical. On the other hand, it would also be true to say that the consideration of all kinds of language in such an integrated continuum does not necessarily produce more useful results for the analysis of translations and for translator training.

A student wishing to be a commercial translator is likely to need somewhat different training compared to one who would like to be a literary translator, even if each may benefit from studying the work of the other.

These are naturally hybrid and combine in different ways ibid. A multilingual version is produced through a process known as localization see section Note the distinctive features of this type of process.

How far do these fit with the Reiss and Snell-Hornby models described above? Her aim, among others, was to provide a model and produce guidelines that can be applied to a wide range of professional translation situations. Translatorial action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction.

These players each have their own specific primary and secondary goals. The roles of the different participants in the translatorial action are analysed. In the case of the professional translator faced with such a text, the likely goals are primarily to earn money, and secondarily to fulfil the contract and to process the text message ibid.

According to the analysis given, the translator may be a non-expert both in the text type and specific subject area. Extra input of subject-area knowledge would need to come from the ST writer within the company or through careful research by the translator s.

Translatorial action focuses very much on producing a TT that is function- ally communicative for the receiver. This means, for example, that the form and genre of the TT must be guided by what is functionally suitable in the TT culture, rather than by merely copying the ST profile.

What is functionally suitable has to be determined by the translator, who is the expert in translatorial action and whose role is to make sure that the intercultural transfer takes place satisfactorily. The needs of the receiver are the determining factors for the TT. Thus, as far as terminology is concerned, a technical term in a technical ST may require clarifica- tion for a non-technical TT user — e. Additionally, in order to maintain cohesion for the TT reader, a single term will normally need to be translated consistently ibid.

Facebook, Wikipedia. However, the model can be criticized, not least for the complexity of its jargon for example message-transmitter compounds , which does little to explain prac- tical translation situations for the individual translator.

Also, since one of the aims of the model is to offer guidelines for intercultural transfer, it is disappointing that it fails to consider cultural difference in more detail or in the kinds of terms proposed by the culturally oriented and sociological models discussed in Chapters 8 and 9. You contact a translation agency inquiring for work and, a while later, are offered half a 20,word translation from German into your first language.

It is an online user manual for a lawnmower produced by a well-known company which sells the product worldwide. The agency asks you to do a sample translation of words to prove your suitability for the task. This is assessed positively by an in-house translator. The project manager then sends you your allocated portion of the ST.

You are asked to work on it using a CAT tool, through which the workflow is monitored and queries made and answered. Your work will be revised in-house. Read the online article by Babych et al. Vermeer — as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. Therefore, knowing why a ST is to be translated and what the function of the TT will be is crucial for the translator.

These are as follows: 1 A translational action is determined by its skopos. Some explanation is required here. Rule 1 is paramount: the TT is determined by its skopos. Rule 2 is important in that it relates the ST and TT to their function in their respective linguistic and cultural contexts. Here, the translator is once again the key player in a process of intercultural communication and production of the Translatum. The irreversibility in point 3 indicates that the function of a TT in the target culture is not necessarily the same as the ST in the source culture.

These are crucial. In other words, the TT must be translated in such a way that it makes sense for the TT receivers, given their circumstances, knowledge and needs. If the TT does not fit the needs of the TT receivers, it is simply not adequate for its purpose.

But the fidelity rule does not say what this coherence relationship should be. Importantly, the hierarchical order of the rules means that intertextual coherence between ST and TT Rule 5 is of less importance than intratextual coherence within the TT Rule 4.

This, in turn, is subordinate to the skopos Rule 1. In other words, the translator should first ensure that the TT fulfils its purpose, then make sure the TT is itself coherent and only then see that the TT demonstrates coher- ence with the ST.

Even then, the type of match between ST and TT is not specified. Christiane Nord, another major functionalist, takes issue with this. There needs to be a relationship between ST and TT, and the nature of this relationship is determined by the purpose or skopos.

For Nord, loyalty is this responsibility translators have toward their partners in translational inter- action. Loyalty commits the translator bilaterally to the source and the target sides.

It must not be mixed up with fidelity or faithfulness, concepts that usually refer to a relationship holding between the source and target texts. Loyalty is an interpersonal category referring to a social relationship between people. In spite of criticisms, an important advantage of skopos theory is that it allows the possibility that the same text may be translated in different ways depending on the purpose of the TT and on the commission which is given to the translator.

The theory does not state what the principle is: this must be decided separately in each specific case. On the other hand, if the will appeared in a novel, the translator might prefer to find a slightly different ambiguity that works in the TL without the need of a formal footnote. This would allow the TT to achieve functional equivalence through the creation of an unmarked ambiguity in the TT. Vermeer describes the commission as comprising 1 a goal and 2 the conditions under which that goal should be achieved including deadline and fee.

Both should be negotiated between the commissioner and the translator. In Reiss and Vermeer —8 , adequacy describes the relations between ST and TT as a consequence of observing a skopos during the translation process. In other words, if the TT fulfils the skopos outlined by the commission, it is functionally and communicatively adequate. However, full functional constancy is considered to be the exception.

Look at the article on audience design Mason available through the ITS website. Note the types of receivers discussed and how these are addressed. These include the following. The point at issue is the extent to which ST type determines translation method and the nature of the link between ST type and translation skopos compare section 5.

Even if the skopos is adequately fulfilled, it may be inadequate at the stylistic or semantic levels of individual segments. This fourth criticism in particular is tackled by Christiane Nord with her model of translation-oriented text analysis, to which we shall now turn.

Nord first makes a distinction between two basic types of translation product and process , which are docu- mentary translation and instrumental translation. Such is the case, for example, in literary translation, where the TT allows the TT receiver access to the ideas of the ST but where the reader is well aware that it is a trans- lation. In the latter, certain culture-specific lexical items in the ST are retained in the TT in order to maintain the local colour of the ST — for example, food items such as Quark a kind of soft cheese , Roggenbrot rye bread and Wurst a type of sausage from a German ST.

The function may be the same for both ST and TT. For instance, a translated computer manual or soft- ware should fulfil the function of instructing the TT receiver in the same way as the ST does for the ST reader. However, she also gives examples of other kinds of translations where it is not possible to preserve the same function in translation.

The model is based on a functional concept, enabling understanding of the function of ST features and the selection of translation strat- egies appropriate to the intended purpose of the translation. However, in her book, Translating as a Purposeful Activity, Nord proposes a more flex- ible version of the model, synthesizing many of the elements described in this chapter and highlighting three aspects of functionalist approaches that are of particular use for translator training The translation commission should give the following information for both texts: Q the intended text functions; Q the addressees sender and recipient ; Q the time and place of text reception; Q the medium speech or writing, and, we might now add, digital or hard copy ; Q the motive why the ST was written and why it is being translated.

This information enables the translator to prioritize what information to include in the TT. Nord analyses a brochure for Heidelberg University. So, the ST may contain redundancies explanations, repe- titions, etc. On the other hand, there may be implicit meanings in the ST that need to be explained to the TT receiver — e. However, Nord stresses that this is only one model of analysis and that it does not really matter which text-linguistic model is used: What is important, though, is that [the model] include a pragmatic anal- ysis of the communicative situations involved and that the same model be used for both source text and translation brief, thus making the results comparable.

Nord 62 This provides some flexibility, although clearly the selection of analytical model is crucial in determining which features are prioritized in the translation. This hierarchy is as follows: a Comparison of the intended functions of the ST and the proposed TT helps to decide the functional type of translation to be produced documentary or instrumental.

So, a docu- mentary translation will be more source-culture oriented and an instru- mental translation more target-culture oriented. In our case study, we therefore apply this synthesized model to the translation of a specific ST. TTs were to be produced in a range of European languages for sale abroad. However, in order to keep costs down, the many illus- trations were to be retained from the ST.

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